Critical Thinking Midterm Notes

Pseudoscience is where a claim is set forth as a reason for believing another claim but that is either logically irrelevant to the truth of the other claim or otherwise fails to provide reasonable support. In this part of the course we are beginning to examine arguments, or, stated more accurately, â€Å"would-be arguments,† where people advance reasons for their beliefs that In fact do not support them. There are two mall types of pseudoscience: those that appeal to emotions and those constructed Like real arguments but failing In the essential task of providing real support.Lessons 10 and 1 1 will examine extemporaneousness types that appeal to emotions. Lesson 12 will study extemporaneousness types constructed Like real arguments. Because extemporaneousness Is defined negatively (what It Is not) It does not lend Itself to technical categorization. The classification offered In these lessons are not exhaustive and may overlap or fall to capture precisely what has gone wrong In an argument. While we must have a common language to communicate about different types of pseudoscience, the point of these lessons is to alert you to a number of ways in which reasoning fails.When you have finished this course, you may quickly forget the many names and labels but remain alert to failures in reasoning. Common Forms of Pseudoscience/Fallacies 1 . Smokescreen/Red Herring 2. The Subjectivist Fallacy 3. Appeal to Belief 4. Common Practice 5. Peer Pressure and Bandwagon 6. Wishful Thinking 7. Scare Tactics 8. Appeal to Pity 9. Apple Polishing 10. Horse Laugh/Ridicule/Sarcasm 11 . Appeal to Anger or Indignation 12. Two Wrongs Make a Right The above list is not exhaustive. Each will be explained In the next section. Definitions/Descriptions of Extemporaneousness Types 1 .Smokescreen/Red Herring: Most pseudonymous Introduce Irrelevant considerations Into a discussion, but a smokescreen or red herring does not fit Into one of the more specific categories. Typically It Inv olves the deliberate Introduction of Irrelevant topic or consideration In order to throw the discussion off course. Example: Professor Conway complains of Inadequate parking on our campus. Duty did you know that last year Conway carried on a torrid love affair with a member of the English Department? Enough said about Conway. Notice the change from the stoic of inadequate parking to the irrelevant topic of a torrid love affair 2.The Subjectivist Fallacy: The structure of this fallacy is â€Å"That may be true for you, but it is not for me,† fact and matters of opinion. In the subjective world of pure opinion (for example, what I think of a particular movie), I am entitled to my opinion. However, in the objective world of facts (for example, the day of the week), I do not enjoy the same latitude. I am not entitled to my own facts. 3. Appeal to Belief: The pattern is: â€Å"X is true because everyone (many people, most societies, others) think that it is true. † It is a distorted version of the reasonable practice of accepting the claim from a seasonable authority.Because people may in fact be experts on a subject, you must take care in distinguishing between good and bad versions of this reasoning. For example, â€Å"Physicians consider food high in saturated fat unsafe,† is a good appeal to belief. On the other hand, â€Å"Physicians consider overseas stocks unsafe,† is a bad appeal to belief. 4. Common Practice is where an action is defended by calling attention to the fact that the action is a common one (not to be confused with appeals for fair play). It seeks to Justify an action on the grounds of its familiarity or typicality.It differs from appeal to belief in that it specifically aims at calling an action acceptable, without mentioning the beliefs people may have about what they commonly do. The most common form of this pseudoscience is, â€Å"Everyone does it. † For example, â€Å"Everyone cheats on their taxes,† is used as Justification for me cheating on my taxes. 5. Peer Pressure/Bandwagon is a pattern of pseudoscience in which you are in effect threatened with rejection by your friends, relatives, etc. , if you don't accept a certain claim. People often act in a certain way because their friends do.A rood has often been swept up behind a candidate or consumer product, the victim of fashion. But this behavior in itself is not pseudoscience. When you go along with friends or a mob to gain social acceptance, you are reasoning correctly about what will get you accepted, whether or not that acceptance is what is best. The phenomenon turns into pseudoscience only when one cites the peers' or crowd's activity as a reason for the truth of a claim. Voting for the most popular political candidate in order to feel at one with your community is, though unwise perhaps, not pseudoscience.Arguing that the candidate is the best one on the grounds of that popularity is pseudoscience. 6. Wishful Thinki ng: Believing that something is true because you want it to be true (or believing that it is false because you don't want it to be true). For example, I refuse to believe that too much exposure to the sun causes skin cancer, because I would have to give up my habit of sunbathing at the beach. 7. Scare Tactics is a pattern of pseudoscience in which someone says, in effect, â€Å"X is so because of Y (where Y induces fear in the listener). The emotion being appealed to is fear. However, you need to watch for the difference between Justified and unjustified appeals to fear. â€Å"If you don't check your parachute before Jumping out of the plane, you may die† is an excellent argument. But the pressure used by car salesperson, for example, indicating that the deal offered is only available today usually involves scare tactics, the inducing of fear in order to make a sale. 8. Appeal to Pity is where someone tries to induce acceptance of a claim by eliciting compassion or pity.The appeal to pity works exactly like a scare tactic, except for the different emotions at stake. As in the appeal to pity, this appeal becomes pseudoscience when the pity is irrelevant. Logic and Critical Thinking does not hold to the notion that you can show no pity and pity is not always irrelevant! 9. Reason for accepting a claim. ( It also has less â€Å"flattering† names! ) Note that apple polishing can take subtle forms, for example, â€Å"You're too intelligent to believe in mental telepathy. † Appeals to flattery have fewer legitimate versions than the last two (appeals to fear and pity), but they do exist.For example, â€Å"You should wear the gold sweater instead of the red one, because it brings out your beautiful eyes. 10. Horse Laugh/Ridicule/Sarcasm is a pattern of pseudoscience in which ridicule is disguised as a reason for rejecting a claim. It is a way to avoid arguing about a position by simply laughing at it. â€Å"Support the Equal Rights Amendment? Sure, as soon as the ladies start buying the drinks! Ha, ha, ha. † Rush Lumbago relies heavily on this one. 11. Appeal to Anger or Indignation: A pattern of pseudoscience in which someone tries to induce acceptance of a claim by arousing indignation or anger.It obscures the relevant issues by arousing one's anger, particularly at some person or group. Keep in mind that expressions of anger (like emotionally charged language) do not by themselves make something an appeal to anger or indignation. The appeal to anger or indignation counts as pseudoscience because it reverses the appropriate relationship between wrongdoing and anger. It is one thing to get angry because you see something wrong being done; but the appeal to anger tries to make you call something wrong because you feel angry.Most commonly, such appeals arouse anger against a person before getting to the specifics of the argument, rather than giving vent to indignation after showing that something wrong as been done, a common tactic in the rhetoric of politicians. 12. Two Wrongs Make a Right pattern: â€Å"It's acceptable to A to do X to B because B would do X to A,† said where Ass doing X to B is not necessary to prevent Bi's doing X to A. One Justifies some action that hurts another person on the grounds that the other person has done (or is likely to do) the same kind of harm.Because many people will see Justice in cases of returning harm for harm, this kind of pseudoscience is difficult to distinguish from legitimate reasoning. â€Å"Two wrongs make a right† is not identical with revenge, UT applies specifically to those circumstances in which the revenging act is illegitimate. Responding to rude service at a restaurant by telling your friends not to eat there may be vengeful, but does not fall under this category of pseudoscience. But if you slip out without paying and Justify yourself on the grounds that the waiters were rude, you are engaging in pseudoscience.Unnamed Classi fy the pseudoscience in the following examples: 1 . â€Å"L can't believe the mayor wants to use the Police Department as security guards for our schools. While he's at it, why not have them collect our garbage? 2. Biker: I refuse to buy Japanese motorcycles. I don't believe in doing business with Communist countries. Reporter: But Japan isn't Communist. Biker: Well to me they are. 3. Officer: Excuse me, sir. Do you know how fast you were going? Driver: I never get over the sight of you mounted policemen. How do you leap down off the horse's back so fast? And you must have them well trained, not to run away when you dismount. . â€Å"Dear Editors: When AH Saccharin wrote in to criticize city workers, he didn't mention his occupation. Maybe he's a millionaire without a care in the world, hat he has the time to criticize people working for him if he's even a taxpayer. † 5. Ladies and gentlemen of the Jury: My client stands before you accused of three bank story, who will have a hard time getting food on their table if their daddy goes to prison. 6. My opponent would like to see TV networks label their programming, on the grounds that violent shows make children who watch them violent. But everyone knows a couple of shows can't change your personality. . I had to get a garage built last summer. Who wants to be the last person on the block to park his car in the open air? 8. There must be life on other planets. Imagine how lonely we'll find the universe if we discover that we're the only ones here. 9. Judge Cunningham keeps striking down our state gun control laws. She had better say good-bye to any hopes for a Supreme Court appointment, as long as we have a democrat in the White House. 10. My opponent would like to see TV networks label their programming, on the grounds that violent shows make children who watch them violent.Next they won't allow any shows from France, on the grounds that children who watch them will become French. 11. I'm a disabled Viet nam veteran. Why can I only get a six-month license to sell pretzels from my pushcart? You have to be a foreigner with a green card to make a living in this country. 12. The United States is under no obligation to pay its debts to the United Nations. Here we are, the biggest contributor to the UN budget, and we only get one vote out of 185. 13. How can Moslems be opposed to alcoholic beverages? People have been drinking them since before the beginning of history. 4. Why do you take a bus to work when most people drive? 15. Give that woman a dollar. I see her on this corner every day crying. And she seems to be ill. 16. Ladies and gentlemen, that concludes my proposal. You know that I trust and honor your Judgment. Even if you do not approve my request, I am happy Just to have had the chance to present this proposal to such qualified experts. Thank you. 17. Letter to the editor: Your magazine expresses sympathy for Annie Larson, a putative â€Å"fashion victim† because â€Å" animal rights terrorists† splashed paint on her mink coat.But when I think of those dozens of animals maimed and anally electrocuted to satisfy someone's vanity, I know who the real victims are, and who's he terrorist. Answers to Exercise Questions 1. Horse laugh. 2. Subjective fallacy 3. Apple polishing. This also counts as smokescreen, but that's not the best answer here 4. Appeal to indignation. 5. Appeal to pity. 6. Appeal to belief. 7. No pseudoscience. The person wants to keep up with the neighbors, but is not asserting that a garage is a good thing in itself. 8. Wishful thinking. 9. Scare tactic. 10. Horse laugh 11. Appeal to anger and appeal to pity. 12. Two wrongs make a right 13.Common practice. 14. Common practice. 17. Two wrongs make a right. Unrepresentative Persuasion: An attempt to win acceptance for a claim, but not giving reasons in support. Instead of reasons, devices in the claims themselves are relied upon, such as, emotive language, positive or negative. P olitical campaign literature makes generous use of emotive language, with few reasons presented in support of the issues or candidates. For example, Copal, a conservative Republican support group, developed a directory of words to be used in writing literature and letters, in preparing speeches, and in producing material for the electronic media.When writing about your own candidate r issue, emotively positive words (commonsense, courage, dream, duty, family, strength, truth, vision, liberty) are recommended. However, negatively charged words (betray, cheat, disgrace, failure, excuses, liberal, welfare self-serving) are used when defining your opponent. It is a valuable exercise for this class to examine some campaign literature. You may find some interesting material on the web. If you do, share it with us on the bulletin board. Some words of caution: Our writing should not be boring.An argument couched in emotive language is not necessarily false, but nuns the risk of adding more heat than clarity to the issue. Using the information in this section increase sensitivity to the difference between illegitimate unrepresentative persuasion and appropriate use of lively or emotively charged language. Slattern: Linguistic device used to affect opinions, attitudes, and behavior without argumentation. I t does not necessarily mean that slattern mislead, rather we primarily examine slattern to become aware of the shadings of language.Good arguments may come in slanted language, but such arguments should not be accepted uncritically. 1 . Euphemisms (good sounds) are words used as substitutes for expressions that may offend, for example, naturalization is substituted for assassination, freedom fighters for guerrillas. By substituting guerrillas with the emotively positive words â€Å"freedom fighters,† emotively positive words, you want to build support for them. Euphemisms are entirely acceptable when they foster civility or diplomacy, for example, â€Å"passin g away† as opposed to â€Å"died† when speaking of a recent bereavement. . Dismisses: The opposite of euphemism is dismisses, that is, words are used to produce a negative effect or attitude. For example, freedom fighter is a euphemism for guerrilla or terrorist, while terrorist, a negatively charged word, is a dismisses. 3. Persuasive comparisons, definitions, and explanations are used to slant what they say. A persuasive comparison slants, positively or negatively, by linking our feeling about a person or thing to the person or thing we compare it to: â€Å"Her complexion is as pale as whale blubber,† or â€Å"Her complexion is like new fallen snow. 4. A persuasive definition uses loaded language when defining a term: â€Å"Abortion is the killing of innocent human life,† or â€Å"Abortion is a safe and effective reoccurred for relieving a woman of an unwanted burden. † To facilitate seeing an issue from all sides, avoid definitions that slant th e discussion. 5. Persuasive explanations use similarly loaded language to tell the reason for an event: â€Å"He lost the fight because he lost his nerve† or â€Å"He lost because he was too cautious. † 6. Assuming that every member of the class has the same set of characteristics: â€Å"All women are poor managers,† or â€Å"All liberals are fiscally irresponsible. † 7. Innuendo involves the insinuation of something derogatory: â€Å"She is competent, in many ways,† r â€Å"He told the truth – this time,† or â€Å"Far be it from me to suggest that my opponent is lying. † 8. A loaded question follows the logic of innuendo, illegitimately suggesting something through the very existence of the question: â€Å"When did you stop beating our wife. The secret to understanding loaded questions is to recognize that there are two questions involved. In the example above the two questions are 1) Did you beat your wife, and 2) When did y ou stop beating her. The loaded question illegitimately assumes a positive answer to number 1) and then illegitimately expects n answer to number 2). 9. A weaseled is a linguistic method of watering down or weakening of a claim in order to spare it criticism. Words like â€Å"may† and â€Å"possibly,† and qualifying phrases like â€Å"as far as we know† or † within reasonable limits,† are some common examples of weasels afoot.Weasels, often used in advertising, suck out all the strength a claim to the point of saying little or nothing: â€Å"Three out of four dentists surveyed recommend sugarless gum for their patients who chew gum. â€Å". 10. A downplayed is a linguistic device to make something seem less important than it ally is: â€Å"Evolution is merely a theory,† or using such words as â€Å"however† and â€Å"although. † 11. Proof surrogates: expressions used to suggest there is evidence or authority for a claim without citing it. For example, â€Å"informed sources,† â€Å"it's obvious that† or â€Å"studies show. When writing research papers be careful to cite your sources and avoid the charge of proof surrogate. 12. Hyperbole is an extravagant overstatement. For example, describing a hangnail as a major injury, or a teenager describing parents as â€Å"fascists† because of a midnight curfew. Note: Is there a method for telling one kind of slanted from another? You will find that the distinctions are partial, often overlapping, and to some extent vague. The organization of slattern into types is meant to assist critical reasoning, not to replace it with role acts of labeling.In order to arrive at the best name for the slanted in a given example, eliminate those possibilities whose very form gives them away: A loaded question must be in the form of a question; a persuasive comparison is a comparison; persuasive definitions and explanations are definitions and explanations be fore they are anything else. If none of these categories fits the example, the slanted assuming there is one – must be euphemism, dismisses, stereotype, innuendo, weaseled, downplayed, hyperbole, or proof surrogate. So, look for the obvious structural cues, loaded (emotive) language, and the intended effects.The process of elimination will lead you to the best description of the slanted. Exercise 9-1 Determine which of the numbered, italicized words and phrases are used as slattern in the following passage: The big money guys (1) who have smuggled (2) the Rancho Vaccine development onto the November ballot will stop at nothing to have this town run Just exactly as they want (3). It is possible (4) that Rancho Venin will cause traffic congestion on the east side of town, and it's perfectly clear that (5) the number of houses that will be built will overload the sewer system. But (6) a small number of individuals have taken up the fight. 7.Can the developers be stopped in their desire Innuendo, dismisses 1. Dismisses, 2. Hyperbole 3. Weaseled 4. Proof surrogate 5. No slanted in this instance. 6. Loaded question. See if you can identify the two questions involved. Exercise 9-2 Identify any slattern you find in the following selections: 1. It's possible that your insurance agent misfiled your claim. Surely he would not have lied to you about it. 2. â€Å"National Health Care: The compassion of the IRS and the efficiency of the post office, all at Pentagon prices. † 3. We'll have to work harder to get Representative Burger reelected because of this little run-in with the law. . During World War II, the United States government resettled many people of Japanese ancestry in internment camps. 5. Morgan has decided to run for state senator. I'm sorry to hear that he's decided to become a politician. 6. I'll tell you what capitalism is: Capitalism is Charlie Manson tinting in Folsom Prison for all those murders and still making a bunch of bucks off T- shir ts promoted by Guns N' Roses. Answers to Exercise 9-2 1 . Innuendo (bringing up the subject of lying while being able to deny that the accusation is being made). 2. Persuasive definition. 3.Euphemism (little run-in with the law). 4. Euphemism (resettled, and internment camps), To statement avoids the fact that Japanese were forced into concentration camps, not resettled voluntarily. 5. No slanted. You might disagree! Give your input on the bulletin board or by e-mail. 6. Persuasive definition. Information Tailoring and the News One major way of influencing a person's behavior or attitude is select the information one receives. In an open society it is difficult to dictate the information people receive. At the same time, if you get your information from one source this is what happens.The best way of defending yourself against unrepresentative persuasion is to be well informed and to read widely, using many sources. We get most of our information on a daily basis from the mass media BBC, CBS, NBC, CNN and the major newspapers. A newspaper professes to present the facts objectively. However, all information must pass through the subjective mind, so objectivity is an ideal rather than a strict reality. The tabloids do not strive for the same level of objectivity by checking their sources. The same can be said for many of the TV news magazine programs, which have grown in popularity in recent years.From the television stations point of view, they are an excellent source of profits, because they are cheap to produce and remain popular for a dwindling audience. Keep in mind that the media are private businesses and as such are in the business of making money. For his reason the media cannot afford to offend their constituents: readers, advertisers, or the government, who provides them with licenses to operate or can make life difficult by withholding information, and the over zealous application of tax laws. Main stream views are promoted, while the controversial i s left to smaller news stories.Most of the information is given to them in press releases from politicians, Congress, the White House, local police forces, and local city halls. Companies of any size also issue press releases on a regular basis. A new source of information is the WWW. You might take the opportunity in this course of taking a look at the web site of newspapers in other parts of the world and compare how a particular story is covered differently than in the U. S. Media. Also, peruse your local newspaper and note where their information comes from.You may be surprised to see that much of the information is from other newspapers around the country and from UPS and other news wire services. CNN is a major news source for local TV newscasts. Beware of media bias, slanting, playing up and playing down of stories, sensational headlines, and the use of emotive language. Advertising: Advertising is useful to sell products, sell political candidates and ideas, make announcemen ts, and so on. It also is a major offender in engaging in unrepresentative persuasion. Ads often exaggerate, mislead and even lie.Some products are advertised so heavily that they skew choices. The psychology of ads is that they play on our fears, desires, prejudices and weaknesses. No expense is spared, and weasel words (fights bad breath, helps control dandruff with regular use, gets dishes virtually spotless) are generously used, especially in the fine print. There re two basic kinds of ads: those that give reasons, and those that do not. All ads are guilty of suppressed evidence, that is, they never give you sufficient information about a product whether it be a commodity or political candidate (30 second spots, for example).Ads will never tell you what is wrong with the product (for example, the commonly experienced mechanical problems of a particular model car). Ads give weak promises (your clothes will be â€Å"brighter† if you use a particular soap), use vague compari sons (good, better, best), and make illegitimate appeals to the authority of the rood (most people use the product) or to the authority of a particular individual (Steve Young in the ad for David). Ads that provide reasons, promise ads, submit reasons for buying the product. They tell us more than that the product exists, but not much more.Usually the promises are vague (Gillie's gin promising â€Å"more gin taste†). So, even ads that present reasons for buying a product do not in themselves justify our purchase of the item. If I have done all my homework ahead of time and then see a particularly good price on an item in an ad, then I would be Justified in eying the product – assuming I have a genuine need of it. Ads invite us to think fallaciously, which we will see more about in the next three lessons. There is no substitute for the application of the skills of logic and critical thinking, especially a careful analysis of unrepresentative persuasion. N advertising. E xercise You might take a particular ad that you like and see how it measures up under the scrutiny of logic and critical thinking. Feel free to share your findings on the bulletin board! Pseudoscience 2 Introduction: Many of the common types of pseudoscience go by the name of fallacy. As a rule, Hess attempts at argumentation do not begin with a psychological response to an issue (whether relevant to the truth of the claim or not). In many cases -false dichotomy, slippery slope they follow the structure of a good argument, but hominid, the pseudoscience resembles a smokescreen.The speaker makes a genuine argument, but one that lacks a proper connection with the truth-claim at hand. The categories presented here cover the most frequently occurring kinds of pseudoscience. These occur so frequently, in fact, that the major terms have entered everyday spoken English. The pseudoscience covered in this lesson often assembles good reasoning more than the examples presented in earlier lesso ns. These cases contain few or no appeals to emotion or other psychological motive. Very often the fallacies listed here garble the structure of a good argument, and may even be altered to become good arguments.Pseudoscience Types Part 2 1. Ad Hominid including Personal Attack, Circumstantial Ad Hominid, Sedimentation indisposing the Well. 2. Genetic Fallacy 3. Burden of Proof including Appeal to Ignorance 4. Straw Man 5. False Dilemma including Perfectionist Fallacy and Line-Drawing Fallacy 6. Slippery Slope 7. Begging the Question. Each will be defined/described in the following section Pseudoscience 2 – Definitions/Descriptions Ad Hominid Basic to the ad hominid (to the person) fallacy is the confusing of the message with the messenger.A claim or an argument is rejected because of some fact about the author or source of the claim or argument. The fallacy can take a number of forms, but they all share a confusion (often deliberate) between the truth of a claim under discuss ion and the person or group who put it forward. Since people may hold true beliefs even when their characters are unreliable, or when they belong to a group hat automatically holds those beliefs, the ad hominid dismissal is pseudoscience. The most obvious form of the ad hominid is the personal attack.As the name indicates, it maligns a person in order to dismiss the person's beliefs; there is something about the person who put forward the argument we do not like or of whom we disapprove. The circumstantial ad hominid attempts to discredit a person's claim or argument by referring to the person's circumstances rather than the claim or argument. This after becomes abusive, for example, â€Å"Of course he thinks the economy's fine. He's a Republican, and they don't care about poor people. But abusive treatment to the group in question is not essential to a circumstantial ad hominid. My doctor says that homeopathic cures don't work, but that's what they get drilled into them in medical school. † You may like your doctor despite saying this; but though the statement contains no abuse, it becomes an ad hominid by refusing to consider the truth of the doctor's opinion. A more complex form of ad hominid is sedimentation. The pattern is : â€Å"l reject your claim because you act as if you think it is false,† or â€Å"You can't make the claim now because you have in the past rejected t. † In this case, one dismisses a claim on the grounds of the other person's inconsistency.Inconsistency does bring down a claim or argument , if a person is advocating both a truth-claim and its denial at the same time. For example, when I it wears down my organs, you can dismiss my claims on the basis of their inconsistency. One variety of sedimentation is where the contradiction between two beliefs reaches back to something a person said in the past: â€Å"How can you say caffeine makes people sleepless, when back in high school I remember you claiming it had no e ffect at all? Another more common variety finds an inconsistency between people's statements and their behavior. You may say you are against drugs, but I notice you drinking alcohol everyday. † The person may be a hypocrite, but drugs can be dangerous nevertheless. Poisoning the well, another form of ad hominid, attempts to discredit in advance what a person might claim by relating unfavorable information about the person. Poisoning the well has the effect of giving anything else that person says an unreliable sound; thus you may think of it as blanket ad hominid in advance. The fact that a person is on death row and committed many murders does not dismiss that person's argument against the death penalty; the argument stands on its own merits.Genetic fallacy: The belief that a perceived defect or deficiency in the origin of a thing discredits the thing itself. Strictly speaking, the ad hominid is a specific form of the genetic fallacy. It rejects a claim solely on the grounds of its source, its origins, or its associations. In conversation, the genetic fallacy may sound as broad as â€Å"You Just think that's wrong because you were brought up that way. † Burden of Proof: A form of pseudoscience in which the burden of proving a point is placed on the wrong side, or places the burden of proof more heavily on one side than it should be.One version occurs when a lack of evidence on one side is taken as evidence for the other side, in cases where the burden of proving the point rests on the latter side. Often a discussion of some issue can turn into a discussion of which side faces the greater burden of proof. It helps to have reasonable grounds for assigning the burden of proof properly. All other things being equal, the greater burden of proof sets with someone whose claim has less initial plausibility. Suppose one person claims that the earth is flat, while another denies it.This claim will strike most people as implausible, so the first person face s the greater burden of proof. All other things being equal, the greater burden of proof rests with someone making an affirmative claim, rather than with the one denying that claim. Be careful when someone defends an affirmative claim by throwing the burden onto the other side, calling a claim true simply because it has not been shown to be false. This special variety of ruder-of-proof pseudoscience is called an appeal to ignorance (for example, God exists because no one has proved the opposite. Straw Man: The Straw Man pseudoscience is where someone ignores an opponent's actual position and presents in its place a distorted, exaggerated, or misrepresented version of that position. There is a deliberate distorting of an opponent's position in order to make it easier to attack. A straw man fallacy typically involves a smokescreen, because recasting another person's opinion in distorted form amounts to changing the subject. At the same time, such faulty thinking can occur without any intent to

Process of Socialization Essay

Socialization is the process by which children and adults learn from others. We begin learning from others during the early days of life; and most people continue their social learning all through life (unless some mental or physical disability slows or stops the learning process). Sometimes the learning is fun, as when we learn a new sport, art or musical technique from a friend we like. At other times, social learning is painful, as when we learn not to drive too fast by receiving a large fine for speeding. Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them. Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others — from infancy on. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; and all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives. Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to â€Å"teach us a lesson;† and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us. There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization; and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be,especially if we learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, defeated or pessimistic about life. Some people will defend negative socialization, since painful training can prepare people to be ready to fight and die in battle, put themselves at great risk in order to save others, endure torture and hardship. This is true; but many people receive far more negative socialization than they need, and hopefully fewer and fewer people will need to be trained for battle, torture and hardship. Functions of Different Social Processes 1.Cooperation- The most favored of all the social pocesses, promotes solidarity and cohesion. I.primary cooperation exist when individulas share the task and rewards with all the members, when the sharing itself becomes both the ends and the means. II.Secondary Cooperation is mere formal type of cooperation existing in modern societies and formal groups. 2.Conflict and cooperation- there are generally considered destructive forces, especially the conflict process but both also fulfill certain function in our society or else the process will oersist competition for one encourages people to exert their best. It stimulates individuals to improve their skills and evidence their knowledge. 3. Differentiation- As individuals they carry with their status or positions in the social system. The status determines the role play in the social situation. As society become more and more complex, roles and function of members in the social system becomes more and more specialized. Differentition role may depend in such factors as sex, age, wealth accumulated and others. References: http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/baldwin/classes/soc142/scznDEF.html Reporter: Danilo L. Sorio Jr.

AL Jazeera Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

AL Jazeera - Research Paper Example in Qatar. Initially, Al Jazeera instigated its journey as a satellite channel that largely dealt with current affairs as well as several important news of Arab. As the news broadcasting channel of Qatar, Al Jazeera enlarged its wide network with numerous business outlets that majorly included the online websites as a medium of internet along with specialty television channels which enhanced Al Jazeera’s accessibility in different regions throughout the world (iHorizons, â€Å"Al-Jazeera Channel†). In the year 2006, the satellite channel of Al Jazeera was launched that delivers latest news bulletins for its worldwide audience. Noticeably, the broadcasting news channel of Al Jazeera has formed an exceptional success towards the news broadcasting world as well as to the modern day philosophy of journalism. For the purpose of continuing this enormous success, especially in the news broadcasting world, Al Jazeera felt the large need to serve its huge number of worldwide viewers by using the medium of Internet. Al Jazeera firmly believes that the greater access of various broadcasting news by the web users would place the channel as a worldwide business leader in the news broadcasting world (Sharp, â€Å"The Al-Jazeera News Network: Opportunity or Challenge for U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East†). Before the emergence of Al Jazeera as a news broadcasting channel, the Arabic audiences generally acquired various other kind of news that included entertainment along with latest news updates relating to sports and finances among others, especially from the media that is owned by the state along with other satellite channels belonging to Arab. The several news that was broadcasted on these wide number of satellite channels were mainly controlled by the state authorities. In this connection, after the initial foundation of Al Jazeera, the worldwide viewers were able to remain updated with various latest news bulletin

Capstone Project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Capstone Project - Assignment Example After a number of meetings they recommended three very important violence prevention programs which include prevention, intervention and treatment. They also established a new department of community programs to manage them. The first program involved improving and expanding gun violence prevention efforts in schools. This program kicked off in 1993 but was enforced in 1998 in response to the shooting in Jonesboro school. Schools in Arkansas started receiving federal funds to enable them set school based violence resource centers. According to Arkansas Advocates for Children & Families (2002), these violence resource centers wrote and published guidebooks on violence prevention that are now used in schools. The second program was an initiative of creating a Community threat assessment program. It was enforced in 1994 by the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families. The organization published a handbook addressing violence â€Å"computer, cellos and call-in radio: violence prevention tools for the 90s†. This book had the steps to follow in confronting violence in the community. The last one was enhancing service provision and accessibility of mental and behavioral health under the treatment initiative. This program involved the Arkansas Art children’s hospital, school clubs, Art center, city parks and churches (Arkansas Advocates for Children & Families, 2002). In conclusion, the gun violence prevention programs started in Arkansas has greatly contributed to preventing gun violence cases in Arkansas. For instance, currently, there are 15 separate groups and 17 summer youth programs with more than 6,000 members funded by the initiative. In addition, a community in Arkansas, knows as Little Rock, recorded a 54% drop in juvenile gun violence arrests. Adjudicative practices are procedures that are made to solve disputes in the judiciary. One of these practices is rehabilitation of the federal prisoners.

Community Relations about Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Community Relations about Policing - Essay Example the people who are identified to work closely with the police and take part in policing activities have been able to identify and report the culprits. However, there are still those activities that are conducted by the police which tend to hinder the success rates of community policing. This paper will discuss a number of the issues to determine how they can be eliminated to ensure that the visions and missions of community policing are achieved. It is not only fitting that the police executive gives high priority to ensuring that the police officers remain accountable, but also essential that they survive as the leader of the police department. It is for this reason that there is a need to work together with other members of the police force as well as the members of the public who interact with the possible law offenders. One of the issues that the police chiefs constantly worry about is the continual use of brutality and excessive use of police force and powers. In this case, most of the police officers and policy makers have to take into consideration such characteristics of community policing that threaten the accountability of police officers (Peter, 2009). One of the most fundamental issues in the individual police officer or the entire group is the ability to be accountable. This is the ground upon which police executives are performed. The scope of this is that the police officers are also the public authorities who have been authorized by the public to ensure that they are kept safe at all times. In this case, they are even obliged to use force when it becomes necessary. Nonetheless, some of the individuals take advantage of this authority and are thus involved in activities that expose the misuse of their powers. Since some of these cannot be detected by the supervisors or may be difficult to ascertain the degree with which such services are provided, the public are supposed to be made aware of what to expect. This also forms part of the community

Environmental Sustainability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Environmental Sustainability - Essay Example It has also been alarmed by the fall of Soviet Union. China naturally wants to get benefits of globalisation and has been showing a reformed smiling face to the global economic world. For a communist regime, this is no mean task and even though the internal control has never been slackened in any way. The economic conditions are definitely exhilarating, but western economists say that there are obvious pitfalls in the economic path chosen by Chinese government unless it makes amends for economic and environmental sustainability. China is the most populous country in the world having population density of more than 130 people per sq. km. The family plan came into being when the Chinese government realised that the population problem is getting out of hand. "Chinese government realized that the over-rapid population growth was harmful to economic and social development, and would cause great difficulties in the fields of employment, housing, communications and medical care; and that if China could not effectively check the over-rapid population growth, and alleviate the tremendous pressure that the population growth was exerting on land, forests and water resources, the worsening of the ecology and the environment in the coming decades would be disastrous, thus endangering the necessary conditions for the survival of humanity, and sustainable social and economic development" China's economic development is not simply based on the g... ttribute much of China's rapid economic growth to two main factors: large-scale capital investment (financed by large domestic savings and foreign investment) and rapid productivity growth. These two factors appear to have gone together hand in hand. Economic reforms led to higher efficiency in the economy, which boosted output and increased resources for additional investment in the economy" according to CRI issue brief for Congress", http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IB98014.pdf It is considered to be Chinese miracle that the economic growth of China has altered the world economic scene. But according to economic analysers, Chinese economic growth has reached a critical stage, where more caution is necessary in policy making. "At the same time, China's economic transition also reached a critical stage. Significant internal developments were and still are forcing the government to consider more aggressive reforms" http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1094/is_n3_v33/ai_20946408 But, there are many internal and external factors hindering Chinese economic growth. It is not easy to change the economic internal scenario overnight from an autocratically managed, centralised economy into a liberalised with slackened control one overnight. There are many steps to be taken mainly to alter the internal shape of the economy, industry, finance and business and naturally, the path to do that is rather rough. It is true that China is facing difficulties with state owned enterprises, which are running under loss and are about to shut down. The government has decided to support the larger enterprises, and the smaller enterprises will become part of history. China's economic development has caused other Asian and Western countries to sit up and take notice. China, till now, has

Credit Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Credit Management - Essay Example The six specific items of information those are available from a cooperative bank source are agreement details, government registration, balance sheet details, tax return details, reserve bank registration and annual banking transactions. (Lock, 330) It should be taken into account the relevancy of marketable securities depend on the nature of those marketable securities depending on the formulated ascertained value projected. From the credit-grantor's standpoint the best possible marketable securities would be those that are easily liquidated and low in risk. (Lock, 19) The major advantage of a customer's accounts receivable that is ageing is that this would be one of the most applicable means of security possible. Apart from that there remains chance that if used properly this customer's accounts receivable would fetch more premium than the customer's own capacity. (Lock, 176) To ascertain the consistency of the customer over a period of time the value of "Spreading" successive balance sheets on comparison forms is one of the most advantageous instruments for the credit grantor. This is the best possible proof of the customer's credibility. (Lock, 119) There are several advantages of setting credit lines for established customers but the most important could be defined as mutual benefit in terms of trust obtained. The second can be treated as goodwill calculation theory that allows the client to benefit from the credit line. Thirdly it becomes important for the company to overlook few objectives as the customer is tested and proved. (Lock, 22) 9.) You hold a $30,000.00 order from a customer whose regular line of credit is $10,000.00. The customer explains that this out-of-routine order will cover their needs for the next 90 days. The customer has always been prompt and owes nothing at present. Explain why you would accept this order for triple your credit line The prime reason of granting this order to the customer is that the customer's credibility is well tested and proved. Thus it becomes obvious that the customer is to be trusted as a credit line is already established. However, with the assurance from the customer it could be enumerated safe to grant this order. (Lock,

Introduction to Health and Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Introduction to Health and Culture - Essay Example The Navajo people value their words as much as they value life because they believe that the words they utter will have a deeper impact on how their lives will go. They do not give out words easily and more often than not, other people find themselves waiting for 30 seconds or more just to hear what a member of the Navajo tribe has to say. And more often than not, this characteristic result to conflict or misunderstanding due to the fact that not all who converse with the Navajo people understands or even knows this trait. The doctors and other medical staffs, who have also graduated with a secret degree on Tact and Diplomacy together with their medical degree, are imbedded with deeper understanding and vast knowledge as to how to deal with different kinds of people. Treating a person from a different culture and with a different background is not prioritized in this aspect. As a person with a mission, healing people is the main goal. Doesn't matter who your patients are, what they a re and where they come from; as long as the service given is fair and just, the mission has been served well. Navajo people are also afraid of death; Also the same with everyone all over the world. That doesn't make them ignorant or simple.

Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen Essay Example for Free

Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen Essay Henrik Ibsen writes realistically, meaning that he writes in a way which is relatable and constant to the time period and characters. He doesnt get overly dramatic. There are multiple themes in Hedda Gabler such as Manipulation, Wealth, Reputation, and Death. Since it is a play, it does not have a point of view. Summary Hedda Gabler is a play that takes place entirely in the living room and another room off to the side in the fashionable side of Christiana, Norway, in 1890 or earlier. The newlywed couple of Jurgen and Hedda Tesman come back from their 6 month honeymoon and wake to find that Jurgan Tesmans aunt Julle has come for a visit. This scene establishes Heddas disinterest in Tesman, as she is rude to his aunt and him. A woman named Mrs. Elvested arrives and informs the crowd that Tesmans rival, Ejlert, is back in town and she is concerned that being back in town will cause him to fall back into old alcoholic habits. Later, Judge Brack arrives and brings gossip from the town. He tells Tesman that Ejlert is a candidate for the professor position that he wants stirring up worry between Tesman and Hedda. Judge Brack and Hedda have a private conversation and decide to become confidants and Hedda confesses that she is bored with Tesman and unpleased with the house he bought her. Tesman arrives back and drinks with Brack while Hedda and Ejlert make conversation. Hedda is bored and decides to pit Ejlert and Mrs. Elvested against each other, causing Ejlert to start drinking again and upset Mrs. Elvested. Tesman, Brack, and Ejlert leave for a party that Brack is throwing. Mrs. Elvested is concerned but Ejlert promises to return to escort her home. Mrs. Elvested goes in another room to sleep when Tesman comes home. He announces to Hedda that he has Ejlerts manuscript that he dropped when he was walking home and he intends to return in. Brack arrives and informs them that Ejlert got arrested. Brack leaves and then Ejlert gets there and tells Mrs. Elvested that he destroyed the manuscript, unaware that Tesman is in possession of it. He later confesses to Hedda that he lost it and is now suicidal. Hedda gives him a pistol and tells him to die beautifully. She burns his manuscript. Act four begins with everyone dressed in black for Tesmans Aunt Rinas death. Mrs. Elvested arrives and tells everyone that Ejlert is in the hospital. Then, Brack arrives and tells them that he is dead, a gunshot wound to the chest. Tesman and Mrs. Elvested try to reconstruct Ejlerts manuscript and Brack tells Hedda that his death was messy and an accident. He also tells her that scandal will probably befall her. She goes into a side room and plays the piano for a bit before shooting herself. Conflict, Climax, Resolution The conflicts in the story are that Mrs. Elvsted is distraught and has left her husband, Ejlert could start drinking again, the Judge wants Hedda in one way or another, and Tesman has to compete for his professorship. The climax is when Hedda burns Ejlert’s manuscript and then aides in his suicide. The denouement is when the judge explains everything and Mrs. Elvested and Tesman work on reconstructing the manuscript. Character Analysis Hedda Gabler is the antagonist of the story, causing most of the conflicts. She was raised in a wealthy family and when she married Tesman she had to accommodate to much less fortune than she is used to. She is manipulative and cruel to most of the characters in the play. Jurgan Tesman is Hedda’s husband. Although he is vastly intelligent, he is oblivious to her cruelty. He tries very hard to please her and went to great lengths to buy her a house a support her and provide everything she needs. He was raised by his Aunt Julle. Judge Brack is essential to the story because he is Hedda’s closest confidant. He also brings news to the story; he serves as sort of a gossip source. He visits the Tesman residence often, as he is close with both Tesman and Hedda. Ejlert Lovberg is Tesman’s long-time academic rival. He is Tesman’s only competitor for a professorship. He is back in town and has a published novel with good reviews. He also has a manuscript for another novel. He once shared a close relationship with Hedda. Mrs. Elvested hired Ejlert as a tutor for her children but grew attached and now acts as his assistant/secretary and travels with him for his writing. She is concerned about his drinking problem. Mrs. Elvested also went to school with Hedda where she was bullied by her.

Bridges of Amsterdam Essay Example for Free

Bridges of Amsterdam Essay Leonid Afremov is a modern impressionist. He uses bright colours and strong strokes but he does not use a brush he uses a pallet knife. He developed his unique style of painting over many years, being influenced by other artists on the way. Afremov says that Marc Chagall was his biggest influence with his earlier work. He has then moved away from surrealism and into impressionism. Leonid was born on the 12th of July 1955 in Vitebsk. He was raised in a traditional Jewish household. Leonid had a difficult upbringing as he had to care for his paralysed Grandmother. His family were unwanted by many people in their town as they spoke Yiddish and practiced many Jewish traditions despite the anti-Semitism law. Leonid was a good student in school. he was interested in history and art. He attended every possible art class the school offered and even got private lessons from local artists. I did not know anything about this artist but his painting caught my eye when I was searching for a painting to write about. I chose this painting because of the eye catching colours; I like the use of hot and cold colours and how parts of the painting blend while other parts don’t. The painting gives me a feeling of warmth and happiness I think this is because of the warm colours used and how bright they are this may also be because of the big bold strokes that are so obvious in the painting that make it just that little bit more unique than other artists. I think Leonid is trying to put across the message of happiness but it could also be a message of loneliness, if you look closely you will see that there is no one in the street and you can’t see anyone in the windows of the buildings. This painting is very interesting all together but one of the most interesting things about the painting is how Leonid made the lights on the bridge actually look like they are glowing the way he did this is by using different tones of yellow and orange to make a glow effect. Leonid uses many interesting techniques such as how the textures are realistic especially in the reflection of the river, and how the tree blends into the sky but you can tell exactly where the leaves of the tree come to the end of the climb towards the sky. He uses a wide variety of thick and thin lines which are very different to the lines that you would see if the painting had been painted with a brush. The composition of this painting is different to other painting as I feel that there is no real focal point, your eyes just wonder around the canvas looking for something new to catch. You could tell who’s painting this is as there are no other artists that use these bold trade mark strokes that are mostly used in the sky but you can see little bits of them used in the buildings and in the tree’s What makes this painting just a little bit more special is that even though you can tell it is night there is still light bright colours in the sky which gives us a feeling o f day but the way he has made the reflections in the river and the way the street lamps shine and the light in the windows of the building that is what gives us the feeling of night time. The very famous painting â€Å"Sunday afternoon on the island of the Grand-Jatte† by Georges Seurat is in some ways very similar to Leonid’s work but in other ways not similar at all. The technique George Seurat used to paint this piece is very unique as was Leonid’s also the shadows and reflections are similar as they are both quite discrete about them. There may be similarities within the work but they are very different as Georges uses a very fine brush and normal colours but Leonid uses a pallet knife and bold colours as well as more texture to his painting. Leonid’s early work was influenced by Marc Chagall who grew up in the same town as Leonid. Chagall was a surreal expressionist this comes to show how much Leonid has grown as an artist as he has experimented with many different styles and has grown to develop his own style of painting within the modern impressionistic way of painting. Many events in Leonid’s life may have affected the way he paints but he himself is positive that war was not one of them, Leonid moved to Israel as he found that he and his family couldn’t have a steady life in Russia anymore. Israel influenced him in many ways as he was an optimistic he found contributing the colours of the bright southern sun made his painting just that little bit more unique this is when he flourished as an artist the most in his career. The society was a big problem in Leonid’s time as it was not very welcoming with the Jewish faith, he found this was the biggest problem in Russia and that was also one of the reasons that he and his family had to move. Even though Leonid was born in Russia he didn’t feel like it was his home country. i think this affected his painting’s in a big way, if you look at the painting you will see that there is no one in the streets its deserted it gives a feeling of serenity as if he wants to be alone separated from something.

Waste Management Of A Fast Food Restaurant Environmental Sciences Essay

Waste Management Of A Fast Food Restaurant Environmental Sciences Essay Schroeder (2007) explains operations management is a part of business that is concerned with the production of goods and services, and employs the task of ensuring that business operations are efficient and effective. It is also concerned with the management of resources and the distribution of goods and services to customers. Naylor (2002) says that operations management is the study that focuses on the effective planning, scheduling, employing, and controlling of a manufacturing or service organisation with the help of concepts from quality management, production management, inventory management, accounting, and other functional areas as they affect the organisation. The organization is basically a fast food restaurant and it is not possible to completely eradicate the waste, but lot of waste is a problem. Minimisation is the best and most cost-effective solution by changing operational activities in the organization. The organization is basically a fast food restaurant and it is n ot possible to completely eradicate the waste, but lot of waste is a problem. Minimisation is the best and most cost-effective solution by changing operational activities in the organization. According to Dr Jones, an anthropologist at the University of Arizonas Bureau for Applied Research in Anthropology: Huge amounts of food are being wasted throughout the industry. A proportion of this waste is inevitable, but a large part of it can be eliminated and lead to increased profit, not only through cutting losses but also through increasing efficiency. The organization has adapted the principals of HACCP, hazard analysis critical control point, which the European Union has issued for food hygiene and to help adopt a risk based safety management system. This Regulation with no option has to be implemented in the fast food industries (EU, 2004). This prohibits the organization to use the expired food to be used because this is illegal in the eyes of law. The research looks at the decision of forecasting the overestimation of the food by the operation managers at times. This expired food can no longer be used and it turns into waste without providing any profit but just the loss to the organization. Thus, managers seek to balance the cost of carrying high stocks with the risk of waste or non-service after a stock out and should understand the importance of inventory management (Silver et al, 1998). Control can be expensive and invasive for those engaged in the tasks. The manager, therefore, must understand how control can be exercised as well as how much is needed (ibid). Operational activities need to be monitored and controlled so that they can achieve their targets in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and, where appropriate, equity (Wild, 1991). According to Johnston et al (2006), operations management is concerned with the production of good and services and it involves the responsibility of ensuring that business operations are effective and efficient. The seven principles of HACCP: 1. List of all potential hazards Few potential hazards are associated with each step, conduct a hazard analysis, and also consider any measures to control the identified hazards. The HACCP team should conduct a hazard analysis to identify the hazards and also to know which hazards are of such a nature that their elimination or reduction is essential to acceptable levels for the production of safe food. The following principles should be included in conducting the hazard analysis wherever possible: The likely occurrence of significant hazards The qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the presence of hazards Multiplication of microorganisms is needed to be closely observed Production or continuous in foods of toxins, chemicals or physical agents. 2. Determine critical control points This step is used for the determination of critical control points in the production points in the production process. If this subsequent step further used in the production Process can eliminate the hazard or to reduce it to an acceptable level, if the answer is yes than we can say that it is not a CCP, if the answer is no then it is named as CCP. 3. Establish critical limits for each CCP Critical points are to be established for each product for the safety of the product. Critical limits are derived from scientific data, regulatory standards and guidelines. 4. Establish a monitoring system for each CCP Someone from the HACCP team needs to monitor the critical limit of the significant hazard. Monitoring can be done by measurement or observation; sample planning can be done by taking the samples. According Mortimore the most common measurements taken are Time access Temperature measurement PH measurement Moisture content 5. Establish corrective actions Corrective actions are established when the CCP is not within the established limits. The control of hazards is recovered by applying corrective actions. 6. Establish verification procedures Verification procedures should be established to know whether the system is working or not. This step determines the confirmation of all the above steps. According to Mortimore CCPs should be kept under control whenever possible to confirm the capacity of all elements of HACCP plan. 7. Establish documentation and record keeping According to Edelstein to demonstrate whether the HACCP system is working properly or not established record keeping and documentation procedures are necessary. Examples for records are corrective actions taken, CCP monitoring records and records of deviation. The management has to look towards the possible risks that might hinder the growth of the organisation which may be because of the operational inefficiencies. Managing risk is one of the primary objectives of the firms and mainly managers lack in anticipating variation or negative variation in business outcome variables such as revenues, costs, profit, market share, and so on (Miller, 1992). The concept of risk as performance variable is mainly used in operations, finance and strategic management terms which refers to variation in corporate outcomes or performance that can not be predicted (March and Shapira, 1987). Therefore, the researcher believes that the operational managers of KFC should review risks towards the brand image, market share and follow the ongoing activities and review and alter them, if required, to achieve the service outputs as determined by the organization for its future growth and survival and to get a competitive advantage over its rivals. DEFINITION OF WASTE It is hard to define waste because one person who thinks the object is waste may be the same object be valuable to some other person. According to EC waste framework directive of 1975 waste can be defined as Any substance or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard (in the categories set out in Annex 1 of the directive). According to the German Act of August 27 1993 waste can be defined as, wastes are portable objects that have been abandoned by the owner. Waste was defined as any substance or object in the categories set out in the original Waste Framework Directive (waste framework directive 1975) Production or consumption residues not otherwise specified below Off- specification products Products whose date for appropriate use has expired Materials spilled, lost or having undergone other mishap, including any materials, equipment, etc., contaminated as a result of the mishap. Materials contaminated or soiled as a result of planned actions for example residues from cleaning operations, packing, materials, containers, etc. Unusable parts for example reject batteries, exhausted catalysts, etc Substances which no longer perform satisfactorily Residues of industrial processes Residues from pollution abatement processes for example spent filters, scrubber sludges. Machining or finishing residues Residues from raw material extraction processing for example oil field slops. Adulterated materials i.e. oils contaminated with PCBs, etc Any materials, substances or products resulting from remedial action with respect to land. Products for which the holder has no further use these include agricultural, household, office, commercial and shop discards etc. Contaminated materials, substances or products resulting from remedial action with respect to land. Any materials, substances or product which are not contained in the above categories. CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE Wastes are classified as solid, liquid and gaseous waste by taking their physical state into consideration. According White solid waste can further be classified by its original use like food waste and packaging waste, by materials we use like paper and glass, by physical properties as combustible, compostable, recyclable: by origin like household, commercial, agricultural and industrial waste and is also classified by safety levels like hazardous and non hazardous waste. Commercial waste: the solid waste generated by offices, restaurants, warehouses, institutions and non manufacturing activities at industrial facilities. Food waste: putrescible solid material including animal and vegetable waste resulting from handling, storage, sale, preparation, cooking, or serving of foods. Primarily food waste originates in home kitchens, stores, restaurants, and other places where normally food is stored, prepared, or served. Industrial waste: solid waste generated by manufacturing or industrial processes, excluding waste resulting from oil or gas drilling, production and treatment operations; overburden, spoil, or tailings result from mining; or solution mining brine and insoluble component wastes. WASTE POLICIES AND STRATEGIES The system of waste management needs to be sustainable and likely to be integrated environmentally, economically and socially. The strategies include: Reducing the amount of waste generated Developing integrated waste management systems to handle the inevitable waste produced. Integrated waste management system combines waste streams, waste collection, treatment and disposal methods, with the objective achieving environmental benefits, economic optimisation and societal acceptability. This will lead to a practical waste management system for any specific reason. Five principles are recommended by EU for waste management Waste management hierarchy is the main intention of the European waste management policy. The first strategy is to prevent the generation of waste and also to reduce harm caused by it. Waste can be reused, recovered and to optimise the disposal finally. Producer responsibility: product manufactures also have an increased share in the responsibility of dealing with the waste that arises from their product. Self sufficiency in waste disposal facilities at regional, sub- regional and national levels. Proximity: waste should be disposed at a close point where it is being generated. Best available technique not entailing excessive costs: pollution should be prevented as much as possible, be reasonable to implement in financial terms. RESTAURANT AND WASTE Wastes from restaurants can be classified as solid waste by its physical state. It consists of different materials such as food waste, paper, plastic bottles, packaging waste etc. By origin waste generated from restaurant is included as commercial waste. Paper Paper was first produced by the Chinese minister of agriculture Tsai Luin in AD 105 And we can say that still it is the standard of communication between most offices ( waste watch 2004) Waste paper across Europe is marked into different categories based on the quality. Some of them are cardboard, newspapers, white office paper, brown paper bags, wraping papers. According to Williams, 2005 waste paper of low quality can be mainly used for packaging material and also this constitutes the main route for recycling paper and board. According to Murray, 1999 the best example for waste of waste is office paper in London. Packaging We can say the major component of the commercial waste stream is packaging waste. It normally includes paper and cardboard, plastics,glass, metals, food and drink cans or bottles. According to Department of the Environment and Welsh Office, 1995 the best environmental option which can be practised for packaging waste is to minimize the usage and reuse wherever possible, which may be followed by recovery by recycling or energy recovery. Plastics Plastics are the most hazardous problem in the world. A high proportion of waste is made by plastic polymers, the range and volume used is increasing day by day. According to Williams, 2005 bottles, plastic bags, foil wraps are the main cause for waste arising in the commercial waste stream. Plastic type Typical application 1.Thermoplastics High density polyethylene (HDPE) Low density poly ethylene (LDPE) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polystyrene (PS) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Polypropylene (PP) Bottles for household chemicals, bottle caps, toys, house wares Bags, sacks, bin liners, squeezy bottles, cling film, containers Blister packs, food trays, bottles, toys, cable insulation, wallpaper, flooring, cling film Egg cartons yoghurt pots, drinking cups, tape cassettes Carbonated drink bottles, food packaging Margarine tubs, crisp packets, packaging film Office equipment Equipments used for offices generally includes printers, photocopiers, scanners, computers, printer cartridges, cables, fasteners such as pens, staples, drawing pins, paper, diskettes etc. The need for raw materials such as oil which is used in the making of plastics can be reduced by recycling. By reformatting the diskettes they can be reused. If one staple is saved by everyone in the offices of UK it is estimated that 72 tonnes of metal material can be saved every year( waste watch 2004). Food According to EC regulation No 178/2002 food can be defined as any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans. Waste minimization Waste minimization can be defined as the reduction of waste at source, by understanding and changing processes to reduce and prevent waste. This is also known as process or resource efficiency. Waste minimization includes the substitution of less environmentally harmful materials in the production process. Waste minimization programme of an organisation or industry should be an organized, comprehensive and continual effort. The technique adopted for this can be broadly categorized as Source reduction and Recycling ( on-site and off-site) The final unavoidable waste can be treated and disposed. Minimizing the amount of things that are meant to be disposed by the owner mentions third least option of waste minimization. Source reduction Source reduction can be defined as any practice which reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste stream or otherwise released into the environment prior to recycling, treatment, or disposal and reduces hazards to public health and the environment associated with their release. The National Recycling Coalition (NRC) defines source reduction as any action that avoids the creation of waste by reducing waste at the source, including redesigning of products or packaging so that less material is used, making voluntary or imposed behavioural changes in the use of materials or increasing durability or reusability of materials. This definition implies actions intended to encourage conservation of materials. Source Reduction Programme According to Sasikumar promoting source reduction is important because it conserves the resources, reduces disposal costs and pollution, and teaches conservation and prevention. It is a practical approach consisting of the following basic elements; Reduced material use in product manufacture Increased useful life of product through durability and reparability Decreased toxicity Material reuse Reduced/ more efficient consumer use of materials Increased production efficiency resulting in less production waste. It should be noted that focusing only on recycling might give the impression that recycling will take care of all our waste problems. Source reduction and recycling can be promoted simultaneously and can be recognized as the key component of integrated waste management. A special advantage of source reduction is that it offers several opportunities for cost savings such as: Direct savings Avoided waste collection, transportation, disposal costs Decreased pollution control, liability and regulatory compliance cost Reduced product and material use and disposal costs Why waste minimization is important Few reasons for importance of waste minimization Businesses are facing stricter regulatory requirements in the management transportation, and disposal of hazardous waste. The number of hazardous waste disposal facilities has decreased. There are greater restrictions in the use of landfills. Transportation and disposal costs are rising The long- term liability associated with handling and disposal of hazardous waste is substantial. Causes of waste generation The principal causes of waste generation are categorised in the following way Manufacturing / production Production planning Employee behaviour Economic factors Others Manufacturing / production Rejection for cosmetic reasons for example colour Machinery failures especially freezers Overfilling / short filling Packaging design can encourage over-purchase Requirement to show dates on product packaging, when the product could be sold unpackaged Process by-product Production planning Errors in demand forecasting and matching production to demand Impact of weather and extraordinary events Impact of price competition Retailers changing their mind at short notice Deliveries arrive too early Employee behaviour Operator error Lack of awareness of cost of waste disposal and value of the wasted food resource Sub- optimal segregation of reject between reuse and waste Deliberate damage by disaffected employees Theft Economic factors Cost of repackaging Commercial viability of redistribution Geographical constraints on redistribution Others Cancelled promotions Product packaging trials Corporate liquidations Waste management methods The methods used for managing food waste Land disposal: includes all landfill activities plus lagoon disposal and deep injection to borehole when these are used as disposal methods. Land recovery: includes spreading waste on land and surface injection( of organic waste for beneficial treatment of agricultural land), and disposal of waste to land under provisions of waste licensing exemption. Re-use: covers only wastes that go off-site re-use excludes materials which are re-used on-site(i.e. fed back into manufacturing process). Recycling: like re-use, includes only waste that go off-site including materials such as oils and solvents which may be regenerated or re-defined. Thermal: covers incineration with and without energy recovery and the production of waste derived fuel also includes more specialised forms of recovery such as pyrolysis and gasification. Treatment: covers all physico-chemical and biological treatment including anaerobic digestion and composting. Transfer: used for wastes which do not go directly to final disposal, treatment or recovery, these wastes go through a transfer process and may be bulked -up prior to recycling, treatment or disposal in order to reduce transport costs. BENEFITS OF WASTE MINIMIZATION Long- term benefits can be provided by waste minimization. It can assist the attainment of, and improvement on, regulatory requirements firstly. Secondly, it can also provide a company with opportunities to improve profitability by: Realizing specific economic benefits; Reducing liabilities; Promoting a positive public image; Improving the health and safety of employees; Increasing operating efficiency and hence reducing production costs. The implementation of a waste minimization project is likely to incur additional capital investment, which may be rewarded by benefits such as: Reduced on-site waste monitoring, control and treatment costs; Reduced handling, pre-treatment, transport and off-site disposal costs; Reduced waste storage space, thereby creating more space for productive operations; Reduced administrative and paperwork costs associated with waste disposal; Reduced analytical costs for the identification and characterization of specific waste streams; Reduced production costs, including reduced raw material, energy and utility requirements; Reduced risks from handling hazardous materials and hence improved health and safety for employees; Reduced risks for the environment, manifested by the reduction or elimination of liability charges; Reduced risk of breaching authorization, consent or licence conditions and hence reduced risk of prosecution; Improved operating efficiency and process reliability; Improved company image in the eyes of shareholders, employees and the community. Waste minimization projects do not inevitably bring about benefits for occupational health and safety. If the initial generation of waste is reduced then clearly the risks arising from it will certainly be reduced. According to the British marine federation the waste minimization include Cost savings- production costs can be reduced through improved resource efficiency Compliance- a proactive approach ensures that the company minimizes the possibility of litigation and can anticipate requirements of new legislation. Risk reduction- control and reduction of risks and liabilities not only reduce the likelihood of fines and bad publicity but can also boost investor confidence. Market positioning- eco-friendly products can give supply chain confidence and improve customer relations. ABOUT KFC AND POSSIBLE WASTES AT RESTAURANT We can say that KFC is one of the leading organisations in the fast food sector. The annual budget of the restaurant will be nearly 30 millions. Waste generated by the restaurant A lot of food is wasted in the restaurant daily, which may be sometimes due to overproduction. And also food is wasted when the customer returns back with the food saying they didnt like or its not fresh. The food wastage also occurs when the member of staff could not handle it properly during the time of packing. The wastage which can be given second place after the food waste in restaurant is dipping sauces wastage. A lot of paper in the office is also wasted in the form of packing bags and food wrappers. HIERARCHIES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT The various waste management options can be placed in an order known as the waste management hierarchy, which reflects the relative sustainability of each. One of the key principles underlying waste management policy in the UK is to ensure that waste is dealt with as high up the waste management hierarchy as possible. Since all waste disposal options have some impact on the environment, the only way to avoid impact is not to produce waste in the first place, and waste reduction is therefore at the top of the hierarchy. Reuse, followed by recycling and composting follow, while disposal to landfill or by incineration, the worst options, are at the bottom of the hierarchy. The waste management hierarchy can be defined as a set of five options in general dealing with waste. We can say that waste hierarchy is an interpretation of Reduce- Reuse- Recycle. According to sashikumar waste is an inevitable by-product of society. Society must take necessary steps that waste is disposed or recovered without any risk. East European developed waste legislation outlines hierarchy of waste management and principles. Waste management of hierarchy which identifies management options based on their desirability. sashikumar says that one of the most desirable option is waste minimization and prevention of waste generation. The directive requires governments to apply five principles in waste management. The principle of best available technology not involving excessive cost The principle of proximity of treatment and disposal to the source of waste. The principle of self sufficiency in waste disposal Application of polluter pays principle to the disposal of waste to ensure that the cost of waste disposal is borne by the producer-holder Duty of care for producers of waste Waste prevention Reducing the amount or pollution potential of municipal solid waste and the other waste produced in a given area is a preventive action, which means that it is fundamentally different function to waste management proper. It is to be noted that reducing the amount of waste offers many potential benefits such as: Fewer environmental problems with waste management Lower waste management costs Increased conservation More efficient use of resources Increased public confidence in industry and government. Waste reduction One of the most important objectives of the waste management plan has to be prevention and minimization of waste going to the treatment and landfill. The minimization of quantities of waste being treated and disposed to landfills is a challenge that may be addressed through the implementation of an integrated waste management system, which is based on following principles: Prevention and minimization of waste generation Provision of a recycling infrastructure Separate source collection of recyclable components of municipal solid waste Centralized separation of recyclables for mixed waste. Prevention Reuse Recycling Other recovery Disposal Prevention- measures taken before a substance, material or product has become waste, that reduce (a) the quantity of waste, including through the re-use of products or the extension of the life span of products; (b) the adverse impacts of the generated waste on the environment and human health; or (c) the content of harmful substances in materials and products. Re- use- checking, cleaning or repairing recovery operations, by which products or components of such products that have become waste are prepared so that they can be re-used without any other pre-processing Recycling Any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or substances whether for the original or other purposes includes the reprocessing of organic material, but not energy recovery or the reprocessing into materials that are to be used as fuels or backfilling operations Other recovery it normally includes energy recovery

Nineteenth Century Views on Charity as Depicted in Charlotte Bronte’s Life and Novel, Jane Eyre :: Bronte

Nineteenth Century Views on Charity as Depicted in Charlotte Bronte’s Life and Novel, Jane Eyre In the nineteenth century, the role of charity was portrayed differently by many individuals depending on what religion they followed. On one hand, many people felt obligated to help the unfortunate to comply with religious responsibility and to become better individuals. On the other hand, Others, felt that the misfortunes of the poor weren’t their responsibility. The different concepts of charity can be viewed in Charlotte Bronte’s novel Jane Eyre, as she reveals to us the various experiences Jane underwent as an orphan. Many of the instances that Bronte mentions in her novel are references to some of the incidents she encountered in her school years. To know why charity was significantly one of Bronte’s main focuses in the novel, we will look at the conceptions that the Anglicans and other Christian groups had of charity in the nineteenth century, as well as a history of Bronte’s familial background. The Anglicans and other Christian groups viewed charity differently in the nineteenth century. Each religion had and preached its own concept. We learn that the Anglicans’ views are more in opposition to charity when Cheryl Walsh indicates that, "Through this type of religion, there was very little encouragement for the development of a social conscience—of recognition of any kind of responsibility for the welfare of fellow human beings"(353). Walsh also mentions that Anglicans "Felt neither responsible for the suffering of the poor nor called on to help alleviate that suffering"(353). The belief of not being responsible for the misfortunes of the poor and not attempting to help them in any way draws the notion that Anglicans clearly didn’t favor charitable acts. On the other hand, according to St. Paul, Christianity’s view on charity was more an act of duty than the expected one of kindness. Christianity propagated charity as one of the necessary acts that a good Christian should follow. Graham Gordon believes that in Christianity, "Charity is considered chief of the Christian virtues," and that "Charity is commended by St. Paul for being the true way to the end which religious practices seek"(10). We can see that in being a chief virtue, charity is highly encouraged in the sense that helping others is considered to be a great deed of good doing. Therefore, we can draw the notion that those who wish to follow the "true way to the end," are those that contribute the most to the poor, as opposed to those mentioned by Walsh who see themselves as "not responsible for the welfare of human beings.

Living with Mental Health Disorders Essay examples -- Personality Diso

When a child acts out without a moment’s notice, what factors influence this particular action? Many adolescence are prone to live with forms of aggressive behavior. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry claims â€Å"teens experience and exhibit aggressive behaviors in a number of ways.† The question is why do teens act this way, in some cases aggressive behavior is biological? Sigmund Freud claims â€Å"humans [posses] an unconscious aggressive drive from birth.† In response, something causes a person to act out. â€Å"It is said that family has a large influence on a child’s aggressive behavior†¦ children who observe violent parents are likely to influence that behavior.† With this being said, a child who is surrounded by a difficult home life has a higher tendency to act rationally. Those who show aggression may have something deeper beyond the surface, known as Personality Disorders. Personality Disorders c ome in all forms, an example being Paranoid Personality Disorder. People who suffer from PPD have a hard time trusting others. People who suffer from related diseases believe that others are out to get them and they have to act before they are harmed. Living a life such as this would create a strenuous amount of weight on ones shoulders. To live one’s life in fear constantly can take a large toll on the mind. Unfortunately for the victims of mental illness, the struggle is continuous throughout their lives. What does it truly mean to be bipolar? Some people use the word freely, indicating they may have mood swings, moments of highs and lows. Typically, females claim they have symptoms of Bipolar Disorder, but in reality, the female population is just hormonal. People who suffer from â€Å"Bipolar Disorder†¦[... ...ealthcare_services/mental_health/mental_health>. National Institute of Mental Health . 27 November 2013 . Nestor, Paul G. "Mental Disorder and Violence: Personality Dimensions and Clinical Features." The American Journal of Psychiatry (2002): 1-5. Price, Rita. "School shooters typically show mental-health red flags." The Columbus Dispatch (2012): 1-2. Sohail, Dr. K. "Seven Reasons to Kill." Author, Humanist, Speaker, and Therapist (2013): 1-2. Web MD. 27 November 2013 . Web MD. 27 November 2013 . Web MD. 27 November 2013 . Web MD. 27 November 2013 .

Analyzing Diversity in the Workplace

This paper is about designing a model to analyze the dimensions of diversity and implement a training program to implement the results. It is important to break the personality down into three dimensions. Doing this will increase productivity of a company because the employees will work easily together and have less tension. Happy employees increase productivity. The cultural make up of an organization can make or break an organization if it is not understood by its managers and leaders. It is extremely important for a supervisor to analyze the diversity of its organizational members and see how the cultural differences effects the organization. It is important for the leaders of an organization to design a model to analyze the diversity of their the organization so they can develop a cultural diversity training program. In order to understand diversity in culture, you first must break down the culture and person you are trying to understand. We would need to design a model that would break down the dimensions of diversity. It is important to understand the personality of the person. The personality can be broken down into three layers of dimensions; Internal Dimensions, External Dimensions, and Organization Dimensions (knicki) It is important to understand each dimension because if you understand the personality of a person, you will begin to understand how they combine to make a culture. Internal dimensions consist of six different categories which are age, gender, sexual orientation, physical ability, ethnicity, and race. (Knicki) These are things that we cannot control. External dimensions include geographic location, income, personal habits, marital status, parental status, personal status, recreational habits, religions, educational background, work experience and appearance. These, for the most part, are things that we can control. (knicki) Organizational dimensions include functional/classification, work content/field, management status, division department/unit/group, seniority, work location, and union affiliation. These are also mostly our control. (knicki) The above dimensions of personality need to be researched for each employee of an organization. This can come in the form of a survey or questionnaire to each employee. This can also come in the form of a one on one interview asking questions to the employee. The information learned from each the dimensions for each person need to be banked in a data base where the results can be compiled and looked at. (Irwin) After finding out just who is in the organization and finding out their cultural background, the leaders would be able to design a training program for the employees. The program would teach employees about one anothers cultures, and show them how to appreciate each others differences. They would also need sensitivity training. (Loden) Once the organization has undergone a training program dealing with cultural diversity, productivity will increase. When an employee is happy at their job, they tend to work harder and increase their productivity at work. Increasing productivity at the workplace will increase sales which will increase profits. (Jogulu) In conclusion, it is very important to design a model to break down the cultural barriers between employees in a organization. If there are no barriers between people, communication will increase and people will be happier. This will make an organization run more smoothly and there won't be many problems.

Conflicts Being a College Student

Patrice Williams November 12, 2013 Conflicts of A College Student The daily life of a college student is filled with many conflicts. To begin with, students face everyday conflicts such as having transportation, family issues, financial problems, and also lack of focus and responsibility. In college if one is without a car or a reliable source of transportation every day, it can really affect them in school. One might could have a car but it is currently broke down or someone said they were willing to provide the transportation but possibly not showing up.For example, Nicole’s car has broken down over the weekend now she’s wondering how to get to school Monday morning. Nicole calls her friend Monica to give her a ride to school and then she’ll take the metro back home. This could cause Nicole stress and causing her to take focus off of school work. Second, college students also face family issues and crisis. One could have lost a family member that is causing a l ot of stress or grief on their head while attending school. A student may have a family member or friend at home that causes them stress everyday also.For instance, Mark lives at home with Mom, brother, and sister. Conflict may be between everyone at home that causes Mark stress everyday he comes to school. Next, many students come across financial problems during their college life. Some students may lose their job or simply just don’t always have the funds to get by every single day. A student may be on a payment plan every month to pay for school or a student loan. Having everyday issues such as these can cause stress on the mind of a student that he or she doesn’t need while attending college.Take Mya for example, she’s currently in college and is on a payment plan at school to pay her tuition every month, for this current semester. Mya just lost her job and is finding it hard to come up with the money for this coming month; with her also struggling the prev ious months when she did have a job. This situation is very stressful on Mya and causing her to jeopardize school such as being late, missing assignments, and sometimes not showing up at all. Financial issues can play a huge downfall in a life of a college student.Finally, having a lack of responsibility can cause conflict while attending college. Some students start college but aren’t fully prepared. College students would sometimes start off college as if they were in high school and not strongly aware of the transition. Students hang out and party all night with school being in the morning. They slack on their work and put in high school work ethic instead of College work. Having a lack of focus can also affect students. Conflicts such as all of these can pay a huge part daily in a student’s life.

Mr.Aditya Kasana

The key focus has been on the sustainability and travel modes of the children and adults during the investigation. Table of Contents Introduction Destination travel plans were the start of the evolution of travel planning which mainly focused on the reduction of car Journeys to the workplace , tourist spots and schools were also considered to be particular destinations . An example can be taken from the structure of residential travel plans where Journey starts from house to the various destinations.Since travel plans has played a major role in delivering benefits to the regional and local authorities by enchanting accessibility and deducting the level of traffic has brought role of travel plans into a limelight of developing importance which can be achieved through a planning process under a national policy where travel plans can be monitored and improved (controversialists. Co. UK). ‘ School run' is one the key issues which gave rise to School Travel Plans in the wake of risi ng peak traffic congestion , security concerns and air pollution damaging the environment.If school run is eliminated through various travel policies , it can then provide opportunities to children benefit from a healthy habits achieved by cycling and walking to the school. (ghastliest. Gob. UK). In the UK , there are 1. 2 million cars are eyeing driven extra miles to cover the Journey to schools and a million extra on roads during the peak time congestion resulting in increase of carbon emissions and tones of carbon dioxide being produced.It is assumed that the school Journeys only account to a small percentage of total travel Journeys around the I-J and but has a major affect on the large scale (Birmingham. Gob. UK). Norfolk was the first one to achieve an award of being the only county with every school running a travel plan. Programmed were installed both in rural and urban parts of the region resulting in the decrease shift of 17% of car use throughout the area. Norfolk managed to achieve its goals by getting involved with around 6000 children into a habit of cycling , walking , bus use and car sharing (schools. Norfolk. Gob. UK).Literature Review Consolidating literature within the field of travel plans it was discovered that travel plans were first introduced in Government Green Paper in 1996 as part of national policy (Potter et al, 1999). Factors such as location, company cars and organizational policy are all considered when devising travel plans (Names and Sandburg, 1996; Banister and Gallant, 1999). In the sass the travel plans have been recognized significantly and this led to a increase in interest and reforms within departments such as Transport and the regions DETER , Department of the Environment (DETER , 1998 ).Regarding employer travel plans, Potter et al (1999) outlines negative traits in views and attitudes towards the travel plans and were more inclined to implement cycle facilities. However it has been noted that the cycle facility initi ative will not bring about any major change to the impacts suffered to the environment, although acknowledging the benefits in health and increase in safety levels Monoclinic and Shackle (1996). The encouragement of physical activities has been identified as essential to tackle the rise in obesity amongst children (Salmon et al 2004).Salmon et al suggest that schemes such as Walking School Bus' would assist in cultivating and changing behavioral habits and be beneficiary to health of pupils. They also indicate that active travel in no way raises any health risks and with the increase of various education programs, aimed at educating pupils on minimizing risks when taking public transport, walking and cycling. Often with regards to travel plans the focal point is placed upon the role of the employers to tackle the issue of minimizing car travel routines to work, to combat problem of peak hour congestion (Methamphetamine County Council, 1995).This is further exemplified through the ac tions of Brighton and Hove City Council assist companies by devising various travel plans to take an initiative on this influential problem. To put into perspective, travel plans are considered a priority in various countries, for example in Australia various studies have commenced measuring the correlation in the mode of travel to their schools, with a considerable rise from 25% o 89% within a 30 year period of pupils being driven to school (Consultation Planning Survey Services, 1974 and DOI 2005).Australia also takes a similar stance in educating their pupils about transport awareness by a national plan named ‘The School Travel Planning. Research conducted by Pied and Somerville Road & Transport Research (2006) suggested that within the periods in which this plan was implemented, 2007-2008, there was a decrease from 60% to 10% in Journeys to private travel to schools. This was a direct consequence as to the impetus and focus the Australian government placed on public transp ort, walking and cycling, which the search indicated substantially increased from 2007 to 2008.The United Kingdom soon followed suit, initially though the first conceptual travel plans devised by the UK government was regulated within 1997/1998. In 2010 the decision was made to further regulate travel plans with the aim to improve congestion flow around the public and private schools in the I-J. The travel plan has been proved successful. This lies in the fact that within the I-J there are more than 2000 schools which have implemented the ‘School Travel Program', making the UK a fore frontal focus on the creation and division of effective travel plans, attracting the attention of surrounding European countries.Yet with all this success has lead to large investments with a total of El 55 million spent on school travel plans between 2004 and 2009. However it is important to note that EYE million were spent on salaries of school travel advisor and about IEEE million went to the c apital investments. A particular scheme that was successful was the Walking School Bus scheme' which was installed in various schools in September 2000. By consolidating the literature within this field has provided the foundations in which to interpret the theories and notions that surround ‘School Travel Plans'.External factors that may influence school travel plans have been identified from the literature such as the demographical information, congestion, traffic flow, road works through the means of public transport, cycling and walking. Methodology Research aims – Desk research has been conducted in the project. It covers subject matter from all type of sources ranging from published articles to websites of county councils across The United Kingdom. The document of how to a write a successful plan published by Havening London Borough been taken as a base structure for the school travel plan analysis.The reason behind of this approach is to target specific areas of the research questions which are literary in nature. ProJect sets out with a broad introduction to the travel planning and its origin to understand the base of the investigation. Research questions have been arranged in an order to connect with the information as follows – Why school travel plans are important and what are the benefits ? Mainly focuses on the advantages of the school travel plans and benefits to the environment and the society.How to structure and what should be included in a School Travel Plan ? To recognize the structure and the requirement of school travel plans supported by examples from 5 different schools to understand every phase of the plan. Which travel policies under The School Travel Plan been successful in reducing congestion outside schools and promoting greater use of sustainable transport ? Two of the main travel policies has been brought into the light to examine issues related to traffic congestion. Which other countries took initiative in pr omoting school travel programmed ?Three western countries have been taken into account to acknowledge wider aspects of the school travel plans on an international level. What are relationships between school travel plans and other travel plans ? Residential and employer travel plans has been taken into consideration to examine and compare the characteristics of the School Travel Plan. Why school travel plans are important and what are the benefits? School run is the Journey parents make to and from school in order to provide transportation to their children by car.These school Journeys are significantly less compared to the total demand of transport but major effects the peak traffic flows leading in congestion and impact on the environment. In order to reduce congestion , t is required to promote walking and cycling to school within the youth which will going to enhance their social skills , independence and self confidence. This will not only going to benefit them in terms of bodi ly movement but also going to help children getting accustomed to their local environment (Birmingham. Gob. UK).According to Durham county council , it was necessary to create a travel plan by 2010 and following to that , target was achieved by 97% of schools in Durham , obtaining one million pounds to be disburse on the refinement of school Journey projects and promotion of sustainable mode of transport. Enhancement of current parking facilities and better pedestrian access points are one of the few examples of these schemes. Let is important to install school travel plans and encourage active travel through campaigns, initiatives and promotions to teach students about travel sustainability from their childhood (Durham. Ova. UK). The key victims to the school run are usually people living next to schools as they are affected by difficulties created by the drivers by parking in inappropriate places , generating pollution and risking safety of cyclists and pedestrians around the area of the school. During the peak ours , 1 out of 5 Journeys are made by drivers on the school run and usually these journeys are short with a cold engine which produces an excess amount of pollution inside a car which is calculated to be thrice the level of pollution on the pavement which can be quite harmful for children walking to the school(schools. Reform. Gob. UK). As stated by Brighton and Hove city council † A School Travel Plan ( STEP) is a document which sets out how a school will promote safer , active and sustainable travel to school , with the main emphasis being on reducing the number of children being driven to and from school† . Discussion with parents , local people, governors, teachers and students is vital in developing a good STEP and to overcome the problem changing situations , the plan should be assessed and reformed on a regular basis.A school travel plan stimulates active travel which results in reduced congestion and traffic which can be advantage ous to people living around the area of a school , school community and the entire city . School Travel Plan can be benefited by different sections of society (Brighton-hove. Gob. UK). Today's period , obesity is a major issue and it is crucial to promote physical exercise within the youth and make them ware of benefits of sustainable transport and exercise which will help them to make healthy decisions in the future and ameliorate their fitness levels.As suggested in studies , children suffering from anxiety and stress are the ones who are driven and the children likely to be more alert during the class are the ones to choose walking and cycling to the school. It is important for a school to Implement sustainable travel habits such as road safety skills and hazard awareness within the children. Advantages of not being driven to school will provide children with an opportunity to enhance their social skills by interacting with their parents and guardians along the journey and get to know more about the community.By shifting to sharing a car , cycling and walking from short car Journeys will help families to be more economical and save cash over a year or a term (schools. Norfolk. Gob. UK). Students will benefit in better fitness levels by indulging in physical activities such as cycling, scooting and walking. It will refine their knowledge about road user skills and travel awareness and enhance their perception of their surrounding.Schools will see a boost in better feet and less congestion around the campus with the implementation of schemes which will initiate safer cycling routes and walking areas and be part of policies such as Healthy and CEO-schools in of various other schools in the region(Brighton- hove. Gob. UK). For parents , it will help them develop greater connection with schools and better relationship their children with the increase in interaction time and relieve the tension of facing congestion while driving to and from the school.Local Commu nities will take advantage of reduction in noise and air pollution and enchanted road safety and walking routes(Brighton-hove. Ova. UK). Worldwide , it has clearly been recognized by transport planners around in Japan , Europe and Australia , the need of changing travel habits of an individual from private to public mode of transport . It is realizes because of negative impacts being held on social life and health due to increase in congestion in traffic , land use patterns , reduction in use of public services such as rail and buses and increase in the air ; Attaining,A. 2006). How to structure and what should be included in a School Travel Plan? According to Transport of London , the concept of School Travel Plan commonly now as Steps is to benefit the community by implementing travel plan in schools across the country. Steps contain various information and ideas to strengthen areas of transportation across the school with an aim of bringing a change to the environment and the soc iety.The key endeavourer to achieve by Steps is reduction in car Journeys to and from schools , motivating adults and young people to adapt the idea of active travel over the private transportation and to develop appreciation between school communities towards options of travel available to them . The reason Enid the existence of STEP is not only to achieve these aims of improving the flow of travel around school but also to provide benefits to the environment by reducing congestion and pollution by promoting sustainable transport . T has already been proven the advantages of including School Travel Plan in schools (Transport For London). According to Leister council , travel plans has no definite national format and each plan is considers type of developments and sites as it reveals characteristics such as unique location , accessibility and operation which are required to be carried out on that site. Aim of a travel plan is not only to cover traveler's Journey but also address peo ple commuting between residences and business premises (laics. Gob. K). Stages in development of a School Travel Plan – Characteristics of a school Step – 1 It is first required to identify in which area school specializes which means whether it is primary , secondary independent/voluntary or school for special needs . Then moving on to considering the size of the school by finding out how many students are enrolled and what are the age groups and number of staffs employed(havening. Gob. UK). Step- 2 This step would include the description about the location where the school is established .Some key information required are description of the area including a map , school entrances , local public transport links for an example bus routes and stations(havening. Gob. UK). Step- 3 It is required in this section to focus on existing policies of the school which can be for instance school trip and healthy and safety policies and how they can be link to the school travel pla n. If school is involved in promoting environmental activities and considered to be healthy can also be highlighted (havening. Gob. K). Step- 4 In this step , details of any activities in which school take part regularly and relates to the School Travel can be included for an example : Walk to School Week activities, cycle storage , student's cycle training , sustainable transport policies , walking bus and other related activities (havening. Gob. UK). An example of phase 1 can be seen in the school travel plan prepared by the Devon county for The Manor Primary school in Jan 2005 where it mentions about the characteristics of the school.First part of the step can relate to the school introduction where it mentions that it is a primary level situated in the middle of a sousing development in Bridge. It holds a capacity of 35 staff members and 300 students. As shown in their school travel plan , there are 12 car parking space and a single entrance but there is no initiative taken to p romote walking school bus, no CATV , cycle storage or cycle training plans which can relate to step 2 and 4 of the phase 1 (Devon. Gob. K) Phase-2 Issues at the School Step-I This part of step would identify issues by carrying out survey results of the entire school which should answer the following main questions : What date survey was undertaken? How many students were surveyed? How do students travel to school? Besides this , extensive surveys with pupils and parents can be included and any relevant data from the previous surveys conducted which could present progress report would be beneficial in the creating a plan. Surveys should be not be older than 12 month period (havening. Gob. UK).For instance , to get clear view of step-I , an example of Randal Cramer Primary School's survey analysis can provide a basic understanding of survey results. In their STEP, findings are shown of two different surveys being carried out with a gap of two years to monitor progress. The survey cond ucted in the year 2008 proves that the liking is a dominant method over car use and 31% of students are willing to adapt cycle travel. Survey was conducted again in 2010 where it shown a difference in the figures rising Upton 13. 3% for the walking method and a drop of 14. 91 in the use of car .These surveys included in STEP helps school to address their issues efficiently (hackney. Gob. UK). This Step addresses the problems and issues of a school in a written description which explains the need of developing a plan . This section should be separated from the survey results. Issues mainly to acknowledge can be ones identified by arenas , staff , students and from surveys. Some of the issues are such as ones related to school gate parking , barriers to sustainable transport or road Junctions which are considered to be not safe for pupils (havening. Gob. UK).Phase-3 Involvement Step- 1 This step covers evidence of everyone's involvement from individuals to groups within and outside th e school in bringing plan into action. Section must include the people who were interviewed and how their ideas and opinion were directed towards the plan . Details can be sought by mentioning about the meeting of governors/PTA here plan was discussed and about any procedure or involvement of School Council which has been conducted. Other key information to be involved are about any discussions in the classroom or assemblies and curriculum projects.This can be not very easy with students with various learning difficulties and effort should be put in getting as much opinion as possible (havening. Gob. UK). This section carries out any relevant information about letters being sent to local residents or parents or newsletters shared and displays being projected to actively persuade people to share their opinions regarding the travel plan . It should be clearly understood and noted that evidence would not consider hands up surveys on favored means of Journey (havening. Gob. UK).An examp le of this Phase-I can be vividly understood by the School Travel Plan of Hill Top First Community School for the age group of 3 to 9 years. This school majority focuses on the well being of its pupils and has involved itself with their opinions and suggestions. Here are the few examples of children and parents sharing their thoughts about the school travel :- Comments by children- â€Å"The best thing about going to school ( by car ) is listening to the radio. The worst thing is the traffic lights because I like going to school .I'd like to come to school on a bike† â€Å"The best about my Journey(walking) is I get to see lot of different things. My journey is safe but not always when I cross the road† Comments by parents- â€Å"Too many cars pull up by the school gates† † We've nearly been run over by cars reversing out of the school drive at drop off time† These are one of the few comments of the pupils studying in Hilltop school . This proves tha t the school is involving children and parents in initiating their travel plan and tackle any issues (rubs. Gob. UK). Phase-4 What are Plan's objective?This step identifies various objectives, project is intend to achieve such as reduction in number of car trips and during peak hours and promote use of public transport walking/cycling to and from school . These initiatives will result in improvement of health of people within school communities (havening. Gob. UK). To explain the criteria of this phase of a plan , Bishop's Hull Community Primary School's school travel plan can be considered as an example. By evaluating their objectives set up after carrying out survey results. They concluded that cycling needs to be safer for children and remote greater use of walking instead of use of car.Parents should be motivated to share private vehicles to avoid congestion during peak times. These ideas are held together in a their school travel plan to overcome travel issues and promote susta inable mode of transport for the well-fare of the community and children (environmentalism's. Co. UK). Phase-5 Action Plan This part of the step sets out actions required in the plan to achieve these objectives. Actions required can be described in an action plan at the stage of approval (havening. Gob. UK). This section covers about the key ingredients required to establish an action plan.